David J. Farmer - Staffordshire University - AD198-3 : Hypermedia B (2002 - 2003)

Hypermedia - Educational Web Design & Software Design

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

• Abstract
• The Problem
• The Brief
• The Client.
• ICT In The National Curriculum

LITERATURE REVIEW

• Learning Theories And Principles
• Hypermedia
• The Potential Of Hypermedia Online
• Hypermedia & Learning
• The Four Phases Of Instruction
• Instructional Factors Common To Multimedia Software
• Design Features
• Conclusion
• The Work Of Professionals
• Eye Witness Encyclopaedia Of Space And The Universe
• The Times GCSE Biology/Physics/Chemistry Triple Pack
• Microsoft Encarta 98 Deluxe Edition
• BBC Bitesize – GCSE Bitesize Revision - ICT

METHOD

• Initial Thoughts
• The Client
• Subject Area
• Target Audience
• Software
• Content For Use And How To Get It
• Themes
• Typography
• Navigation
• Minimum Expectations
• Limitations
• Design Idea
• Why The Design Would Work
• Feedback On The Design Sketches
• Creation
• Cost Benefit Analysis
• Conclusion

RESULTS

• Results Of Alpha Testing
• Results Of Beta Testing
• Results Of User Testing
• Self Critical Appraisal

RECOMMENDATIONS

• Changes That Would Be Made During Further Development
• Conclusions

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

• Concept Document – Web Funky
• Node Map
• Functionality Specifications
• Screenshots Of The Prototype
• Artefact Content Sources

INTRODUCTION

Abstract

Hypermedia is a form of ‘multimedia hypertext’; multimedia information, held within structures that are linked together through some form of navigation. This basically defines how hypermedia works and what it is. Within this documentation, you will read about the approach taken to solve an educational software problem through the use of hypermedia based program.

The Problem

The problem that underlines the entire brief is that the correct use of multimedia in learning is something that is incredibly difficult to achieve. Not only does it have to be used for positive learning purposes, but it has to be understandable, easy to use and readily available. The design of the software must be streamlined to increase learning potential and be based on one or more learning theories that have been defined throughout history by various psychologists.

The Brief

In short, the brief that has been concluded is to produce a Computer Aided Learning (CAL) program that concentrates on teaching an area of a subject that is part of the National Grid for Learning (NGfL) and it must comply with that subject outlines. It can be designed for Key Stages one to four, but must be done in cooperation with a teacher and pupils.

This therefore means that research will need to be done in many areas, in order to get the solution created to a satisfactory and useable form. Learning processes, human-computer interaction, NGfL subject outcomes, teaching standards and ethics, and the specification of school ICT recourses, will all need to be covered, as well as more detailed design features.

The Client

The software will be created in cooperation with teachers and pupils of a local high school. Members of staff at a local high school have already shown an interest in the project and have offered to help with the programs development and testing. There are several teachers that will be in close contact with for advice, all of which are teachers in the Information Communication Technology (ICT) department. It has already pointed out that there is a gap in the educational software market for programs that cover ICT topics for the younger audience, especially when related to Internet topics.

ICT In The National Curriculum

The GCSE ICT course structure is based and graded on both coursework and exams; the course covers general areas in fundamental ICT concepts and commonly used software packages. Candidates on the course are assigned one of two tiers; higher or lower, and this depends on their abilities.

Oxford Cambridge and RSA Examinations (OCR) is a commonly used exam board, its course outline and assessment objectives briefly give a summary on what the candidate should have the ability to demonstrate in their coursework. In coursework assignments candidates should be able to demonstrate, among other things, the ability to use Information Technology (IT) to communicate and handle information, and how to analyse, design, implement, test and evaluate IT systems. They also should analyse, design, implement, test, evaluate and document IT systems for others to use. The coursework assignments are weighed at sixty percent, with the remaining forty percent being based on exams (OCR, 2001). Other exam boards follow a very similar structure, and allow projects that use databases, spreadsheets and word-processors to take place. However, more recently there has been an increase in the number of projects where designing web sites for small fictional businesses, self-promotion or educational topics has taken place.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The problem is to produce an online multimedia CAL program that teaches learners ages 14 to 16 the history of the Internet, web design principles and fundamentals in HTML. But how should this problem be approached and when combining learning and multimedia what design features and functionality should be present?

Learning Theories And Principles

Behavioural, Cognitive and Constructivist are the main three learning theories that most psychologists have studied in depth. Each takes a different approach on the subject of learning, and therefore, when tied to Computer Aided Learning (CAL), recommend different methodologies.

Behavioural psychology concentrates on the belief that humans learn because of their instinctive human needs and responses, and that learning can be encouraged through negative or positive reinforcement (Alessi & Trollip, 2001). In a typical classroom environment, behavioural examples of teaching would include giving rewards for high grades, singling out people with poorer grades (in an attempt to punish) and playing music in the class room as long as the pupils are silent, reading or meeting there targets (as a reward).

In multimedia software, behavioural techniques would take the form of a tutorial type structure with maybe a few questions at the end, with negative or positive feedback being given upon answering the questions should they be right or wrong.

Cognitive psychology is based on the internal processes of the human brain; constructs such as the mind, memory, attitude, motivation, thinking, reflection and the like are concentrated on primarily in the learning environment (Alessi & Trollip, 2001). Typical cognitive theory teaching approach would include strongly relating information to previous knowledge, keeping learners active through practical work and such, and keeping them motivated and entertained throughout the lesson.

Cognitive influences that would be present in multimedia software would include motivational techniques, encouragement, use of fantasy and would all together be quite an active learning process.

Constructivist teaching believes that learning takes place more when everything is directly linked to real world activity and when the learner has more control. A constructivist teacher would encourage collaborative and cooperative learning activities, would allow for choice in the work that takes place, and ask for feedback on how work was going.

The constructivist approach used in multimedia encourages the use of more interactive and submerging software, such as virtual reality, simulations, and hypermedia, where the learner can explore, apply their own learning styles and use the software as a resource as opposed to lectures from a teacher (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Throughout the design of the solution it is expected that elements of all three learning theories will be used. An example of the reason behind this would be that if only a complete constructivist approach was used and learners were allowed to leave or even ignore the software at any given time, and the teacher was a behavioural thinker, the teacher’s lesson plan would be useless. It is also beneficial to include many ideas that closely relate to the cognitive theory, as keeping the learner motivated, and interested in what they are exploring is just as important as presenting the information itself. More design justification will be given later in this documentation.

Hypermedia

The concept of hypertext, the core of hypermedia, can be traced back to 1945, when Vannevar Bush was the senior science advisor to President. Bush documented his ideas relating to “a future device for individual use, which is a sort of mechanized private file and library” (Bush, 1945). Within Bush’s documentation he describes how this system selects information by association, rather than by indexing. He also states that users would be able to record and comment on items, and link to them through trails (links) which can be named and stored. He even foresaw the possibilities of direct human input and output through the use of media such as the voice, even though his own ideas were based on a device called a Memex which generally revolved around the use of microfiche (Woodhead, 1991).

Not until the early 1960’s though was the hardware available to create a primitive prototype for a computer based hypertext system, and from this point on, as the specification of the hardware increased, so did the usefulness and completeness of hypertext systems. In the 1980’s computer systems had become powerful enough to cope with multimedia data, and when combined with hypertext systems, hypermedia was born.

The developments that seriously increased the popularity of hypermedia for educational software were the introduction of the CD-ROM and the increase in the availability of Internet access that took place in the early 1990’s.

As soon as CD-ROM based media became an affordable medium to sell educational software on, hypermedia programs were now easily transportable and installable, and therefore much more available. File sizes were no longer an issue for the types of media that the hypermedia software could use, and the speeds at which it could be accessed reduced delays in using the software due to loading time. This development allowed vast amounts of multimedia data to become available, and designers of hypermedia based products could now design for much bigger boundaries.

The Internet, well the World Wide Web (WWW), allows educational hypermedia programs to be freely available internationally, and although there are many design limitations with the use of this medium, it can be used very successfully to present multimedia learning programs to learners. However, even though the Internet has massively increased the amount of educational programs that are available, it has also increased the amount of poor software that is in circulation; this is partly due to the lack of suitable tools for correctly developing this software, but mostly because anyone with web design based software can produce these programs (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

The Potential Of Hypermedia Online

The overall acceptance of any computer based system depends on its social, and practical acceptability. Social acceptability being the user’s willingness to use the software, and the practical acceptability being the programs cost, support, reliability, compatibility, user friendliness and usefulness, along with other factors related to its physical presence and use (Neilson, 1990). With these two considerations taken into account, correctly designed software for use on the WWW is incredibly acceptable. Its practical and social acceptance are supported by the fact that the Internet has become fashionable, affordable (due to reduced rates set by Internet Service Providers (ISP’s)) and due to its increase in popularity, its use is now being taut in even primary schools. Overall hypermedia online should have achieved much more that it already has, and its potential for use as a learning resource is very widespread and compelling.

Hypermedia & Learning

Computers have for a long time been able to sort masses of text in order to make themselves an ideal medium for information and reference. Linking these computers together through the use of the World Wide Web, and allowing the data to be accessed, combined and recombined by users globally is an incredibly useful tool. Hypermedia has used this fact and has overcome some of the problems it faced in the past, and as it has always been closely related to education; hypermedia, the Internet and education work well together. Whether this combined set of technology will revolutionise educational software, or just as with the development of so many other technologies, develop in a fragmented and no-nonsense way, is still yet to be seen. But what is certain, is that the relationship between these three areas will continue to remain close, and continue to expand (Cotton & Oliver, 1997).

Computer Aided Learning (CAL), the same as conventional classroom teaching follows methodologies that can be defined within a simple structure. As instructional/educational multimedia is not a new technology, many design principles and fundamentals have been pointed out; these should be mostly, if not completely present within all instructional/educational software. Throughout the rest of this section, you will read about the phases of instruction and see what instructional factors are common to educational multimedia software.

The Four Phases Of Instruction

The four phases of instruction as defined by Alessi and Trollip (2001) are ‘guiding the learner’, ‘presenting information’, ‘practice’ and ‘assessing the learner’, each of these areas should be addressed when producing and educational hypermedia project, and each have different requirements in order to be applied successfully.

The presentation of information is either instructor or media centered, can take place through various mediums and often works best when information is presented through example. How information is presented often depends on the teaching theory that has been applied to it through the teacher, or as in the case of software, the designer. The information that has been presented must also be accurate, relevant, up to date (where possible), and presented in a way that the users can understand. A key feature of presented information is its completeness and correctness, both of which are required to make any hypermedia application complete (Lowe & Hall, 1999).

Guiding the learner involves both the learner and the medium, the learner should be able to ask questions, and in turn, the medium should guide the learner through the information that has been presented. In software terms, without artificial intelligence the user can only observe Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ’s) or predefined data structures within the program, in the hope that their questions will be answered. However, software can easily guide the learner through the information and ask the user questions at various stages. Software that guides the learner through information must take into account Human Computer Interaction (HCI) issues that relate to the users ability.

Practice of skills can take place in many forms, and is important in the retention of knowledge that needs to be present in any activity. Educational software should allow for practical activities, and unlike many other forms of practice, should spot any mistakes by the user, and give advice, where possible, to rectify them.

Assessment of learning provides important information about the level of learning, the quality of teaching, and future instructional needs, and although it is not a method of instruction, we should not assume that instruction is successful for all learners (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Instructional Factors Common To Multimedia Software

Multimedia software spans across various genres, and although different techniques can apply to each of them, there are common and relevant factors that should be applied that positively increase the appearance, functionality, usefulness and effectiveness of the software. They can be broken down into five areas; ‘introduction’, ‘learner control’, ‘presentation’, ‘help’ and ‘ending’ (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Firstly, multimedia software should have an introduction to the program, and should include a title page, some initial directions, and user identification if required.
Secondly, the learner’s control of the program needs to be taken into account, how much users control the program, how they will control the program, and what peripherals will the user have or require, all need to be addressed. The programs functionality fits into this area, programs should support student exploration therefore giving the student a sense of ownership of their own learning (Lowe & Hall, 1999).

Presentation of information is the next factor that needs to be dealt with. The choice, timing and layout of media, all need to be carefully thought of in order to be as successful as possible in getting the users paying attention to the information.

Help also needs to be available throughout the use of the program, and available in both procedural and informational form. Procedural help concentrates on the actual use of the program, whereas informational help gives guidance on how to access further information.

Finally, the user should also be given a method of terminating the program. Whether they wish to leave the program temporarily or permanently is another matter, but if the user requires to save their status within the program, they should be able to. There should also be safety nets and final messages, and should any credits need to be listed; they should be available through the exit routine.

Design Features

Various design concepts can be applied to educational software to increase the amount of learning that takes place and to generally make the software more user-friendly. Some of the key factors and how they affect educational software design are documented below.

Human Computer Interaction (HCI)

HCI issues play a key role in the functionality and design of educational software for children. Children’s attitudes towards computers and computer based learning, along with their abilities to use such software needs to be addressed to ensure that the software is streamlined for its target audience.

Children’s attitudes towards computers and computer based learning vary massively depending on the age and gender of the child. Also the previous knowledge of computer systems that the child has contribute to the child’s ability. For example, it has been found that girls are generally more reluctant to use computers than boys, this has been put down to a biased computer based product marketing history and social aspects that have left girls generally less interested in the subject (Vogelzang, 1996). Educational software should be designed in a unisex manor, so that it appeals to both genders.

Correctly designed software should easily suit the abilities of the user. With children aged 14-16 years there can be a lot of flexibility within software designs, as they will have already experienced using computers and are classed as ‘young adults’ in many cases. However it should also account for less experienced users, and the primary input device for use on navigation should always be the mouse due to its easy of use, accuracy, availability and speed (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Typography

Effective presentation of textual information strongly relies on the choice of typeface, colour and spacing etc. that has been applied to it. With advanced typography, the level of perception goes beyond simple recognition of shapes used within strings of two-dimensional letterforms; words have two meanings, the word image and the typographic image created using its holistic visual manifestation (Bellantoni & Woolman, 1999). In educational software the advanced typography should not have any conflicts between the two meanings, so that no confusion occurs with the user.

Various experiments have been performed in educational environments to try and find suitable fonts for children to read either on screen or from paper-based sources. Walker (2001) conducted an experiment on children aged six to seven years old; she varied the type-face and the horizontal spacing or letters and words to see which caused fewer errors when being read out aloud and found that there were significant differences with different combinations. Although this research was done for younger children, it still shows that type choice and spacing can increase performance.

Layout & Structure

The layout and structure of the pages in a hypermedia based educational software package is strongly linked to the presentation of information within it. Pages or screens of content should be consistent, have text laid out effectively and use suitable formatting. Alessi and Trollip (2001) give guidance on these areas, they recommend, among other things, to be consistent in as many ways as possible, to have correctly sized and spaced text, and to use paragraph formatting and margins. They also recommend that the structure of the software should be easy to navigate and the software provide orientation so that users know where they are amongst the content.

Multimedia Use

Educational software has also become much more multimedia rich, and correct use of multimedia elements in educational software has been documented on many occasions.

When using graphics in educational software, it is important to consider both the purpose of the graphic and the type of graphic. Graphics can be used in many ways throughout a program; primary information, analogies or mnemonics, organisers and cues are all examples of how graphics can be used effectively. In many cases, graphics are used when textual explanations are extremely complex if used alone, but they can also be used, among other ways, to simply break up large amounts of text. Graphics can be broken down into many types, and when using graphics the type of image should be chosen considering the type of information that needs to be communicated. For example, a picture of a heart does not show how a heart functions as well as a diagram, but it does show things such as colour and texture better (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Video based media is becoming increasingly popular in educational software and is available in many forms. It tends to be used when high quality visual movement is required or an impact needs to be made. Video can be engaging, entertaining, thought provoking and potentially motivating, it can also add a professional look to the software, but it is expensive and time consuming to produce. The use of video also increases the hardware and often, software requirements of the software, and when used on the Internet, it requires high speed Internet connections for quick download. Video should also have controls to accompany it, so that users have control of the presentation of information within it (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Sound can be used in various ways in educational multimedia software; speech, sound effects and music are all commonly used. With sound user control is essential, not only will users wish to pause, play, stop and repeat certain sounds, but some will wish to turn it off or adjust the volume. The quality of audio must be high, low quality sound will usually be immediately turned off and this can be quite expensive to produce. Sound also requires the user to have the necessary hardware to access it, and when used on the Internet it often needs to be compressed in order for downloads to be faster (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

Conclusion

Educational hypermedia has been around for a long time, and in order to complete a successful CAL program, it will need to take all of the above factors into account. This includes choosing a teaching theory that applies to the design and ideas, and basing the presentation of information and the guiding of the learner on it. Also, the four phases of instruction, and the instructional factors common to multimedia will need to be applied.

The Work Of Professionals

In this section you will read reviews on available educational software, these reviews will help to point where other software packages have failed, and where they have succeeded, therefore giving ideas on what can be included within this projects designs, and what to watch out for.

Eye Witness Encyclopaedia Of Space And The Universe

Produced By: Dorling Kingsley Multimedia
Year Released: 1996
Format: CD-ROM
Genre: Hypermedia (encyclopedia, quiz, games and simulations)

Cost: £19.99 (currently)
Subject: Science, History
Target Audience: - (13+, opinion)
Requirements: Multimedia PC, 486DX/33, 4mb RAM, 2x CDROM.

Initial Comments

As soon as the program reaches the main navigational control room you are presented with attractive graphics, background music and animations. The navigation takes the form of objects that are within a room, these act as icons and when clicked play a small animation before reaching their destinations, they do not have rollovers, but most of the icons are combined with text to describe there meanings and the cursor changes.

When you click on an icon to enter an area of information, you are presented with an initial sub-menu that is a window type display that opens on top of the main ‘control room’, the content then loads in a further window in place of the sub-menu.

In general the navigation for the software is easy to use at a simple level, but very difficult to master, each of the sub-menus are laid out differently, and as there are often so many unobvious links on the screen at any one time, it is difficult at first to navigate through the software. Even experienced users of computer systems may use ‘trial and error’ to find further information on subjects and to progress through the programs structure, and this should not be necessary.

Overall, the navigational design is very pleasing to the eye, but very annoying to use, and is very much the programs biggest downfall.

The Four Phases Of Instruction

Presentation Of Information:

The software does present information very well, text is easily readable, graphics are clear and precise, diagrams are well drawn, and video, animation and sound are present and suitable for their purpose.

Learner Guidance:

The software doesn’t ask the user questions unless the user asks for them by clicking on the quiz section of the program, and the user doesn’t have any FAQ’s to read and therefore must find the answers themselves.

Practicing:

The software does give the user lots of hands on experience, and interactive challenges; a few games are present along with some simulation.

Learner Assessment:

The learner is not assessed in any real way throughout the use of the program, there is a quiz available, but the software doesn’t assess the performance, it just waits for user input and calculates a score. The user must assess their own progress.

Instructional Factors Common To Multimedia

The software does include most of the instructional factors that are common to educational multimedia programs, but does not give any way to close the program, other than through the use of the standard window options, and this did not have any messages or safety nets attached to it. Also, although help was available, it was not immediately apparent where, but when finally found, it was quite concise.

The entire program was controlled through the use of the mouse, but initial directions on where to click were never given, again it relied completely on the users interpretation of the layout and cursor changes.

Learning Theory

The software is certainly mostly based on constructivist theory, allowing the user to navigate through the information freely and to quit at anytime, but elements of cognitive theory were also applied, as the use of fantasy and challenge were almost always applied.
Overall, the software does allow the user to learn pretty much all of the information that is available and aimed at the target user’s age range, but in areas does fail to motivate the user and encourages information to be clicked through quickly. As previously mentioned the navigation of the software is its biggest downfall, and due to this, it has a knock-on effect through different instructional areas.

Elements For Inclusion Within The Design

Although the subject matter is near enough completely different, there are elements that this software uses that should be incorporated within the software.

The first is the quality and preciseness of the images used within this software, they were very easy to interpret and were presented at the correct times, this must have increased the amount of learning that took place, and kept the software looking professional and attractive.

The other elements that should be included are the use of fantasy and challenge that strongly relate to the cognitive learning theory. While using the software, especially the interactive simulations and games, the user was held within this fantasy, and presented with challenges that but knowledge into practical use and motivated the user to carry on learning.

Reviews:

”absolutely love it..., 4 September, 2001

Reviewer: QQapple^.~ from Australia 

This is the perfect CD not only for children. I love how it has so much information, absolutely beautiful photographs, 3d models, cool games, information with links to related information, coolest 3d animation....and the best of all, the star dome!!!. Go to the star dome, point on a map where u live, insert date, time and u can see what stars are currently above your roof... Press on any star/or galaxy to get info of that star/galaxy/nebula/planet, time it rise or set, how bright it is it's size/type/age, and links to related info. Search in the star dome, a constellation, a galaxy/messiah/star (alphabetically/by brightness/messiah/other methods) plus there is an absolutely lovely relaxing music that perfectly matches the star dome. Owned it for years, never got tired of it...learnt a lot from it...done an assignment using it and my teacher commented that the assignment I did was at a university level!!! There are also info on astronomers, space crafts and history and multiple choice tests to test your knowledge.” (Amazon.co.uk, 2002).

“…Overall, I thought this was an excellent program, though not as good as the Eyewitness Animal range (like the Cats CD-ROM I previously reviewed). There are only two activities, which isn't enough for an educational disc, and they don't teach you much either. The low number of sound clips is another drawback, although the subject doesn't really lend itself to this media. As this was a June 1996 release, it doesn't cover the recent revelations of life found on Mars (or rather a piece of it), and as there are no updates due, you are not likely to. However, the subject of space and the universe is an ever changing one, and you would be hard pushed to find a commercial program that is up to date....” (Fenn L., 1996).

“…Despite these glitches, Eyewitness Encyclopedia of Space and the Universe is a wonderful example of a multimedia reference work. It is beautifully crafted and highly readable, and an excellent example of what can be done with multimedia software. I highly recommend it for middle school and high school libraries. It is reasonably priced, and very suitable for home use…” (Pozar, 1997).

Screen Shots

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Dorling Kingsley - Eyewitness Encyclopedia Of Space And The Universe.
Main Menu / Content / Game.

Captured 8th November 2002

The Times GCSE Biology/Physics/Chemistry Triple Pack

Produced By: The Times
Year Released: -
Format: CD-ROM (3x)
Genre: Hypermedia (encyclopedia and quiz)

Cost: £22.47
Subject: Science
Target Audience: - (13+, opinion)
Requirements: Multimedia PC, Pentium 133, 16mb RAM, 4x CDROM.

Initial Comments

The programs can run straight from the CDs which is very beneficial as most school computer networks don’t allow software installations. When each of the programs begin you are welcomed by initial loading screens and then finally a main menu screen, the structure, design and functionality of each of these programs are the same.

The navigation throughout the use of the software is fairly straight forward, but is not consistent between each of the sections. It is expected that the target users of this software would have no problems using the program and finding the information that they require.

The general look and feel of the program is fairly bland; there is no unnecessary eye candy, and all interactive features are kept to a minimum. The multimedia elements used within the software are used very well and are easily accessible; the best example was the use of a 3D eye that focused differently depending on the light intensity shined on it.

The Four Phases Of Instruction

Presentation Of Information:

The software has a textbook look and feel. All of the information is presented in a straight-forward way and is clear and concise. Audio is used in many areas to help reinforce the learning experience. Multimedia elements are used to add additional emphasis to a concept or idea.

Learner Guidance:

Although the design of the navigation is fairly weak, the software does successfully give the user the ability to browse through the software at their own pace. The software also encourages users to ask themselves questions, and to find the answers by using the multimedia elements.

Practicing:

The use of a quiz is the only way that the user is able to practice the knowledge that they have learnt with the software. The software would benefit from a more hands on approach, where users can talk part in simulations or games.

Learner Assessment:

As with the Dorling Kingsley software the learner is not assessed throughout the use of the program, there is a quiz available, but the software doesn’t assess the performance, it just waits for user input and calculates a score.

Instructional Factors Common To Multimedia

The software included all instructional factors that are common to educational multimedia programs, but each could have easily been improved. Help for example was seriously lacking, only a few details were given for the use of the navigation, and the use of colour and graphics could have been used better to give the user more orientation of both the area they are studying and which of the subjects this information fits into.

Learning Theory

Constructivist theory was applied to this software much more than cognitive or behavioural theory. The user can stroll in and out of the software, and navigate through the information freely while using it.

As mentioned within the previous software review, this software, like the other, fails to motivate the user, therefore encouraging quick browsing, as opposed to studying the content in depth. Due to this the learner can potentially fail to learn information that could be important, the software should have attention pulled to key information.

Elements For Inclusion Within The Design

The subject matter for this software is completely different, but how the software uses multimedia elements to display some information is very impressive and often very originally. The use of ‘intelligent’ multimedia to display information and to encourage learning is something that should be used within the design; this software does use some very original concepts and uses them very effectively.

Reviews

“GCSE Chemistry, Biology & Physics Triple Pack, 2 September, 2002 Reviewer: A software user from United Kingdom
In a Physics lesson I found the most interesting thing about it was my teacher’s socks. If you are having a similar problem or want to get good results then look no further. The program includes interactive experiments and exercises, video clips, a section that teaches you all you need to know and then tests for each topic. The graphics and animations are great and its actually quite fun! I feel I am learning far more this way and enjoying it at the same time. From Biotechnology to Titrations everything that you will need to learn for GCSE is there in an easy way to learn and revise. It beats my teachers socks any day!” (Amazon.co.uk, 2002).

Screen Shots

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The Times – GCSE Biology.
Main Menu / Content / Quiz / Quit

Captured 8th November 2002

Microsoft Encarta 98 Deluxe Edition

Produced By: Microsoft
Year Released: 1997
Format: CD-ROM (3x)
Genre: Hypermedia (encyclopedia and quiz)

Cost: £59.99 (when released)
Subject: -
Target Audience: - (13+, opinion)
Requirements: Multimedia PC, Pentium 133, 16mb RAM, 4x CDROM.

Initial Comments

After installing the software, required plug-ins and additional software through the installation wizard and running the software for the first time, you are presented with an initial loading screen and then an animated main menu. This menu is incredibly easy to use, and some additional information is shown at the bottom of the screen to make you aware of extra features that the software has available.

The main area of the software is the multimedia encyclopedia, this is presented in a browser type style, and is easy to use for the more experienced user, but new users have to learn through trial and error or through the use of the help section. Sub-sections of the software include a dictionary, a multimedia browser, a web directory and the ‘mind maze’, an interactive quiz and maze game. The navigation used throughout these areas is similar is style and functionality of the encyclopedia itself. The most impressive features of this software are its search capabilities and its massive amount and variation of multimedia information.

The only major problem with this software is that it spans its content across three CDROMS and requires constant disc swapping in order to get all of the multimedia elements available.

The Four Phases Of Instruction

Presentation Of Information:

The encyclopedia section of the software presents information in a similar way to a traditional book based encyclopedia, articles are easy to read, and multimedia elements are very easily accessed. The information is very clear and concise, and similar topics are linked to throughout each article.

Learner Guidance:

Although the design of the navigation is quite initially complex it is quick to get used to. Different types of navigation have been successfully used, and throughout the general use of the program the navigation feels consistent.

Practicing:

Some articles within the encyclopedia have interactive activities attached to them, and although often basic, they are quite interesting and rewarding. The software also includes the ‘mind maze’ quiz, and uses multimedia elements such as Quick Time Virtual Reality (QTVR) to allow exploration of different article topics.

Learner Assessment:

No real assessment is done to assess the user’s activities, only with the quiz gives some feedback and that is limited. But as the software is an encyclopedia, it wasn’t truly necessary.

Instructional Factors Common To Multimedia

This software package is an unusual one to judge on its ability to include all of the instructional factors that are common to multimedia. It doesn’t have any definable objectives for example, as each users needs are different and it doesn’t really need to assess the learner in anyway. But it should include most of the other factors, and it does, however it is lacking an exit routine, as when the user closes the program they have no safety net to stop the process.

Learning Theory

A combination of constructivist and cognitive theories apply to this product. The software can be roamed around freely, as the user is in complete control, but certain areas of the software use cognitive learning principles, especially the themed quiz and the use of QTVR.

Elements For Inclusion Within The Design

This software has been reviewed because it is a fantastic example of the use of hypermedia for learning purposes, the strongest features of this software include its navigation and search facilities, somehow it is hoped that these principles will be implemented with the design, however, due to the differences in the amount of content, it may not be feasible for it to be so advanced.

Reviews

“This encyclopedia is beautifully written and organized. Graphics are crisp and clear, and the content - when it addresses the topic - is consistently detailed and well-written. Accessing information is simple and straight-forward. Encarta is a serious reference tool that is well-suited for a high school student or beyond; younger users may find the writing level difficult to comprehend at times.” (Superkids.com, 1997).

“…In my opinion, Encarta 98 Encyclopedia Deluxe is especially suited for older students--grades 6-12. Hands down, kids this age enjoy playing this software--mainly due to its heavy-duty multimedia approach which seems to provide entertainment, as well as informative stuff. You'll want to keep track of your middle-school age kids while playing this software--the temptations are great to get side-tracked playing Virtual Tours, Mind Maze, and other Media Features instead of tackling the subject they intended to research in the first place!

Want to explore the Mars Pathfinder? View the awesome Martian landscape? No problem. Interested in listening to Vivaldi, Beethoven, Mozart or Bach? Just insert the second CD-ROM and listen away!

As with other electronic encyclopaedias, you'll find the usual assortment of maps, charts and tables. An added plus--31 Panoramic (360 degrees) Views for that 3D experience you can only experience through technology! Whether you're viewing the U.S. Space Shuttle or trekking through the Mayan ruins at Tikal, you're in for an enriching adventure.

I enjoyed the Sidebars, which offer guest essays, historical views, informed opinions and the pros and cons of controversial issues. They seemed to nicely compliment the core encyclopedia text. Many of the Sidebars include text from contributors such as National Geographic, Columbia University Press, the U.S. National Archives and the U.S. Library of Congress.

Another exciting feature, Call-Out Quotes, highlights key thoughts and phrases in articles. Just click on a Call-Out quote to find the relevant section.

Especially valuable for schools, the 12 Interactivities encourage hands-on learning. Here, kids can build a dinosaur, construct a DNA sequence or explore human anatomy with the click of a mouse...” (TheReviewZone.com, -)

Screen Shots

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Microsoft – Encarta ’98 Deluxe.
Main Menu / Content / Interactive / Quiz / 360° Panorama

Captured 8th November 2002

BBC Bitesize – GCSE Bitesize Revision - ICT

Produced By: BBCi
Year Released: -
Format: Web Site (a section of a larger site)

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/ict/

Genre: Hypermedia

Cost: Free (although created using TV license funding).
Subject: ICT
Target Audience: 14-16
Requirements: Access to the Internet, Internet browser.

Initial Comments

For the purpose of this documentation this review will only concentrate on the GCSE ICT Bitesize educational section of the BBC web site, this is because it concentrates on the learning of ICT for 14-16 years olds and is therefore designed for the same users and subject as the projects solution.

The first page you are presented with that is individual to this section is the main menu, it is clear and straight forward, and assumed to be formatted in the same way as the other subject areas. From here you can narrow the areas of information that you wish to cover by accessing the submenus, before finally reaching that topics individual area. All of these pages use the same colour schemes and formatting techniques, helping to keep consistency in both design and navigation.

Overall the design is very straight-forward and easy to use, but is very dull and uninteresting, more interaction is definitely needed.

The Four Phases Of Instruction

Presentation Of Information:

The content of each of the pages is well written and aimed at the target audience, diagrams and images have been used to display certain information, but nothing more than text and images are present. Key words have also been highlighted in order to make them stand out.

Learner Guidance:

The software doesn’t do that much to guide the learner through the information, navigation through content pages is page to page, or by page number within that topic area. It’s simple, but not very effective. The keywords as mentioned before should have some function attached to them.

Practicing:

The only way to test the knowledge that you have gained is by completing a quiz that is present at the end of each topic, and even these are poorly designed as they are very tedious to complete.

Learner Assessment:

The quiz does give feedback on the answers that were given, but it is very poorly done, for example; “6. You said C. Hard luck. That should have been a modem.” Is an example of the feedback that you are given, it is fairly useless, “You scored 2 out of 10 (20%).” is the only semi-useful information you are given on your performance.

Instructional Factors Common To Multimedia

Some of the factors that are common to instructional multimedia are not present on the site because they don’t need to be, but some that are should be improved. The BBC web site has a universal help section giving details on how to use the Internet in general, this is not aimed at the target audience of ‘Bitesize’ site users, but this is the only link that is present for help on the Bitesize pages. In general the use of graphics, colour, multimedia, and the navigation could have all been improved, and elements such as the user feedback and assessment could have been massively improved.

Learning Theory

The site seems to be based on the behavioural learning, as information is presented in sequence within a hierarchy, but it still uses elements of constructivist theory as the user can browse at their own pace.

Elements For Inclusion Within The Design

The only positive thing that can be said about this section of the BBC Bitesize web site is that it presents its information clearly and is quite concise without going into too much depth, it also uses its medium well, as it is quick loading and relatively easy to use. The only elements that should be transferred to this design will be to use a similar writing style and to try and keep the download time down.

Screen Shots

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BBCi - GCSE Bitesize Revision – ICT.
Main Menu / Content / Quiz / Help

Captured 8th November 2002

METHOD

After summarising the current state of hypermedia and reviewing available hypermedia based educational software, it is now time to discuss the design principles that need to be included and to begin drafting up some design concepts.

Initial Thoughts

The content spans across three areas, ‘History Of The Internet’, ‘Design Principles’ and ‘HTML’, therefore, it would be best for the software to have three integrated sections of content, and separate assessments for each. This would reduce conflicts while users are learning, and help to ‘chunk’ information, it would also increase their orientation within the software.

The content will also use many keywords, which at times will need explanations for the user to understand them; the software will include some kind of dictionary to make this possible. In order to make each area of content more memorable, some activities will be available for the users to participate in. The users activity progress will also be recorded, where applicable, so that assessment can be given from the users teacher, if present, as well as from the software. This will require some database activity, but attaches extra functionality and usefulness to the software, some form of identification for both type of user; teacher and pupil, will be required.

Other than these specific initial ideas, the navigation will have to be easy to use and attractive, text will have to be very easy to read, and due to limitations set by download times, multimedia elements will only be used when necessary for either instructional or motivational reasons.

The teaching style that will be applied is cognitive theory as it is most appropriate, however elements from both constructivist and behavioural theories will have to be included within the design in order for the software to work successfully and be accepted by all users.

The Client

Having discussed initial plans for the structure, design and content of the software with the teacher, no conflicts between either of our ideas arouse. However she emphasised that she would like to see a simple step-by-step tutorial giving an introduction to HTML as this nicely ties in with current work that the pupils are doing and will be expected to continue with next year. Also she would like to see a debriefing on how the Internet works before diving into concepts such as the using the World Wide Web and Web design.

She has arranged for the testing of the software to take place with a class of twenty year ten pupils (aged 14-15) in one of the IT suits within the school. This will make it easier to test the software as each pupil will have their own individual computer to work on and it will not interfere with final year pupils who will (at the time of testing) be approaching their final few weeks before their exams.

Subject Area

The subject that is being learnt through the use of the software is continuously being observed in more ways than one, not only does the user learn by reading the content, but if the design of the software uses standard web design techniques (e.g. underlined different colour links), they will take note of and remember the ways to format their own web pages.
Also, as the users will have quite a lot of previous knowledge of using the Internet, the design of the software does not have to be designed for use by non-computer literate users; this allows more flexibility in the design, as more slightly complex concepts can be used.

The subject area can also be quite a dull topic; two of the areas are mostly theoretical and therefore will have less constructive interactive elements available for positive use. These two areas may rely on multimedia elements to increase the motivation of the user and to add interest to the presentation of information. For example, a QTVR movie of computer room showing the development of computer systems could help users to see why the Internet has only become available and affordable in more recent years. These two areas will have quizzes though, the results of which will be stored in a database for assessment by the teacher where required. The users can retake the quizzes as many times as possible, in order to try and beat their own high scores, this encourages repetition. The principle of repetition, when related to learning, claims that the more information is practiced or used, the more likely it is to be remembered and remembered better (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

The other area, learning HTML, can include many interactive elements though; ‘drag and drop’ web page construction, spotting common mistakes and the tag dictionary are all ideas that could help to positively increase learning.

Target Audience

As previously mentioned the target audience are aged fourteen to sixteen years old, and are studying GCSE Information Communications Technology (or similar). This means they will already be quite computer literate, but the design must account for users that may not be at the same level to increase its acceptance and usability.

The target audience also have characteristics that limit or judge how the software should be designed. The amount of information that should be present before the learner is actively required to do something, referred to as cognitive capacity by Alessi and Trollip (2001), should be limited as younger learners are expected to have smaller attention spans than adults. Other design features that are affected include text size, use of colour and the software general aesthetics.

Hardware

The NGfL have produced a technical specification of hardware that the software should be designed for use on. The main points include that it should be assumed that 800x600 resolutions with 256 colours are still being used, some systems will still be using level three browsers on a variety of operating systems, and that some users will be accessing the Internet using 28.8Kbps modem based connections. Another point that the documentation makes is that browser plug-ins should be compatible with the level three browsers (NGfL, 2000).

As this information was written in September 2000, it is over two years out of date, and in computer hardware terms this is a long time. The only problem that the above information presents is that some images may require more than 256 colours, but after looking at Internet browsing statistics from thecounter.com it is found that only three percent of surveyed users used 256 colour depths over the month of October 2002, so should some images use unsafe colours, the problem wont be that significant (TheCounter.com, 2002).

Software

The increasingly popular Macromedia Flash authoring tool is rapidly becoming the norm for web based animation, and vector based games, it can also be used to create hypermedia based educational software through its use of ActionScript; the programming language designed for Flash to increase its interactive potential.

Firstly Macromedia Flash uses vector-based images, as opposed to the more popular web based raster file types, such as JPEG or GIF. This allows lines and shapes to be stored and retrieved mathematically; they are often smaller in file size than raster images and have the ability to be scaled without any loss of data.

Secondly Macromedia Flash has the ability to create animations, again stored as mathematic data; they usually use less disc space than animated gifs (Powell T. A., 2000).

Finally, as previously mentioned, Macromedia Flash uses its own programming language called ActionScript; with ActionScript it is possible to create highly interactive presentations, quizzes and even games. For the creation of any educational hypermedia program it is essential to find the software that has the capabilities to produce the application to its required specification and for its required medium, in this case, Macromedia Flash will easily suffice.

Macromedia Flash MX is ideal for interactive multimedia presentations on the World Wide Web, but it does have a few problems attached to it. When Macromedia Flash has been used for previous projects, problems have arisen with lower specification computers showing heavily animated objects, this is something that will need to be constantly checked, as some areas of the site will be quite heavily dependant on processing power. The file size of the exported Flash movie will also need to be constantly controlled, as large download times will decrease the software’s acceptability and accessibility. Another reason for using Macromedia Flash is that its plug-in is currently installed on approximately 414 million web browsers, which covers a high percentage of the people that currently frequently use the Internet (Macromedia, 2002).

Content For Use And How To Get It

The main content of the software will be adapted from class handouts, textbooks and online sources that teach the subject of ICT to similar aged learners. It will follow a writing style that is suitable for the target audience and will be as short winded as possible, as reading from a monitor can be found tedious and can lead to eye strain. The latter of these two reasons is also the justification behind possibly having a printable version of the content being available.

The quiz questions will be adapted from previous exam papers, textbooks and online sources, and answers will usually be of a multiple choice type format.

The dictionary section of the software will use summaries from various ‘computer users’ dictionaries.

All of these sources will be mentioned at the end of the documentation (see appendix).

Themes

The software won’t have any significant themes, however an animated character will be used to guide the learner through the software, and a colour scheme will be used to keep everything looking attractive and consistent from page to page. This will help to increase the users feeling of orientation, and as ICT doesn’t immediately have any distinctive themes attached to it, it reduces any conflict between the design and the content.

Typography

The software will have some elements of typography used within its design. Typography will be used on the navigation to increase its usability and user-friendliness, and will be used to present information that needs to stand out and express its importance. The software will also use an interesting font on its title page; this will motivate the learner as they will believe that what they are learning is interesting itself.

Navigation

The navigation is a very important area for this software, users must be able to find specific information held within the software, and the quicker and easier the users find this the better. The software will also use standard web techniques, for example, links that appear within the main text on the content pages will be a different colour and underlined. This will help to show web design principles by example and reinforce what the learner is reading about.

Minimum Expectations

The minimum expectations for the software, that have been discussed with the client, are that the software must teach the user the history of the Internet and web design principles, and it must show users how to create their own web pages. This could be done using a few simple tutorials, however, in order for the software to be successful, it has to not only present information, but must guide the learner, give practice and assess the learning that has taken place. A list of functionality that needs to be present was drafted alongside the client (see appendix for functionality specifications).

Limitations

The software does have several key limitations that must be taken into account throughout the design and it implementation. The most significant is the download time of the flash movie; the type, quality and quantity of media has to be taken into account, and the use of embedded fonts and external media must be reviewed. It would be beneficial to keep the total file size down to less than one hundred kilobytes, as even a file this small takes around twenty seconds to download using a 56.6Kbps modem.

The second limitation is of the abilities of Macromedia Flash, there are certain things that can and cannot be successfully done easily in Macromedia Flash, therefore certain elements may not be worth the additional development time. Also some things just cannot be done through Flash, for example controlling the application through the use of a joystick cannot be done in Flash alone.

Design Idea

The design idea, as briefly described in the concept document and throughout the documentation so far, is to have an animated character presenting some of the information, guiding the learner, and giving some brief assessment of the user’s actions. The character can also be used for providing help, and could form part of the navigation somehow.

The site will be structured in a hierarchical manor, with each of the main sections of content having their own individual page numbers. Additional areas, such has ‘help’ and ‘credits’, will be displayed from within their own ‘stem’ of the hierarchy.

Storyboards and rough sketches of the layout can be seen below. There is also a sketch of an idea for the animated character and program logo etc.

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This image shows roughly how the site will be structured. Note the separate log in sections for teachers and pupils.

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This image shows how the Flash movie itself will be structured. Note the hierarchy type style structure of the content which has been further represented using a node map (see appendix for node map).

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This is the design for the main interface of the Flash movie, although lacking in detail it does show how it would be laid out and navigated.

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This is a rough design for the character that will guide the learner through the software and present some information and provide some help.

The teaching style that will be applied to the software will be a mix between cognitive and constructivist theories, but will also include some elements of behavioural theory. The software will always refer to real world examples and will encourage cooperative and collaborative learning even though no direct comments to it will be made. It will also use elements of fantasy and will constantly use motivational techniques to keep the user interested. Plus it will use positive and negative reinforcement possibly by increasing or decreasing the time before the user can answer the next question on the quiz depending on their answers up until that point.

Why The Design Would Work

The software should be successful because it has different areas of the three teaching theories applied to it that can be seen as beneficial and useable within the software. It will also use different multimedia technologies and techniques in order to keep the software modern and interesting and it will be streamlined for use on the Internet.

It will also cover all of the minimum expectations that have been short listed with the client and include much more.

The design also gives assessment of the users learning, and gives the teacher a record of the pupil’s progress.

When referring back to the four phases of instruction, it covers all aspects, and does so well. It will also include all if the instructional factors that are common to educational multimedia software programs.

Overall the software is perfectly suited to its objectives, and hopefully learners will benefit significantly from its use.

Feedback On The Design Sketches

The teacher is impressed with the design so far, but she suggested changing the name of the software from “Web Funky” to “Web Works”, as a colourful looking background would distract from the text and the “Works” aspect of the title suggests that much more active learning will take place and reinforces the feeling that pupils will get to build something in the end.

Creation

As can be seen from the designs, the web site doesn’t just depend on the one Macromedia Flash based page, it has a welcome/login page, a sign up page, a parents and teachers page, and a status saved page.

These areas will be created using nothing more than Adobe Photoshop v6 for graphics, and Microsoft Notepad for the HTML, JavaScript & PHP.

Photoshop v6 will be used because of its extensive amount of features and ease of use, but most importantly Photoshop v6 has a ‘Save For Web’ process where you can vary quality settings easily for optimal quality and download time.

The reason behind the choice of using PHP for the server side scripting language is that not only is PHP & MySQL hosting cheap and quick to write, but it is easily powerful enough to perform the tasks that are required from it. PHP was chosen above ColdFusion because although ColdFusion is very powerful and easy to write, hosting tends to be very expensive. ASP wasn’t chosen because it can be often found to be harder to write, and it is much more longwinded.

Cost Benefit Analysis

Although the production of the project is free from costs, it is limited by time constraints mostly regarding development time. It has to be noted that the majority of the learning content will be textual and therefore relatively quick to produce, however images and any sound that are to be used may require time consuming attention.

The project does have a deadline that must be met as it is part of University work; this deadline gives the project around four months of production time. It is estimated that it will take around one hundred and fifty hours to develop and test the software, and additional time may be required to alter the software after final testing.

Gathering, adapting and writing the textual content will take around thirty hours; this is a major portion of the software. Designing a style template for the display of the content on each screen will take around two hours. Scripting the interactions and structure of the software will take around thirty hours. Each individual screen will take around five minutes to build and program, so in total eight hours will be needed for this. Also creating the graphics, animation and sound will take around fifteen hours. Finally packaging the software and building a front end with ‘log in’ and ‘sign up’ functions will take around twenty hours. In total the 150 hours is approximately right, as many unforeseen problems are sure to arise, and ‘tweaking’ the software (spelling, alignment and scaling objects etc.) will consume the remaining time.

Conclusion

The discussed design concepts and methodologies, if properly executed, will generally make the software more user-friendly, user-aimed and accessible.

The projects implementation can now begin, throughout the development process continuous testing and stages of feedback will take place. However three significant testing stages will be present; alpha testing will take place through the use of an online bullet-in board and meetings with lecturers at Staffordshire University. Beta testing will take place with the teacher and a few ‘sample’ pupils and final user testing will take place with a class of pupils.

RESULTS

Results Of Alpha Testing

The solution at this stage looked as shown below, general testing was necessary and feedback was required on the appearance, functionality and structure.

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http://ard-172-174.staffs.ac.uk/MAforum/index.php (Staffordshire, Thames Valley and Purdue bulletin board (STP))

http://www.the-pit.net (Web design bulletin board (TPN))

The two URL’s above are online bulletin boards that have been used for initial feedback and testing, and with one-to-one feedback from University lecturers the following comments were made during this stage of testing.

General feedback from STP suggested structuring heavily textual areas of the software in a much more low-paced manner; some users mentioned that the initial presentation of the information may distract or confuse users. They also recommended that users should be given a clearer indication of the way that they are best working through the learning content; they were at the time encouraged to explore the software, but this may not be best for learning purposes, a set path could guide the learner and help them to progress at a more suitable pace.

Feedback from TPN and lecturers from University was more focused on the look and feel of the software; they indicated a strong need for much more use of colour, animation and interaction. TPN users also pointed out various spelling and grammar errors, and some small bugs and glitches in the software. It was also stated that the character on the right hand side needs to emphasize what is said more, as on nearly every change on the main screen causes him to say something different and after a while users were expected to stop paying attention.

Positive comments from all users at this stage revolved around how well the learning material was structured and presented, and on how well the software defines its aims and informs the user. Most feedback also mentioned that the feedback from the quizzes was mostly very good and that the idea of having a drag and drop HTML activity was not only well thought out, but was well executed.

Changes That Were Made

The general appearance of the software was changed to try and break up different sections of the textual presentation through using background colours. The navigation was restructured to make it easier to use; breaking apart main content links and areas such as help, glossary and credits etc. But any functionality based ideas that were mentioned above were to be left until after beta testing (with sample users) to see if their implementation would be worthwhile.

Results Of Beta Testing

The solution at this stage looked as shown below; general user-orientated testing was required to see if ideas for alteration mentioned during alpha testing were worthwhile and to gain feedback from a small range of target-audience users.

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Child A, B, C and D all gave feedback on the software as it stood. Child A was a girl aged fourteen, B and C were a boys aged fifteen and D was a boy aged sixteen. A, B and D had varying computer literacy levels, but C had a keen interest in Web design and had some knowledge of HTML.

All of the children found the software easy to use and did like the look and feel of it, each worked their way through the software from top (the Internet section) to bottom (learning HTML) without being prompted to do so, but it is not expected that all users would. However they didn’t realise that the quiz buttons (shown in small square boxes with the letter Q in) were actually a significant part of the learning process, more emphasis on the presence of these buttons would be needed.

The quiz scores of the sample users were varied, C obviously scored much higher than the other three, as he applied his previous knowledge along with any newly learnt material. A and B scored roughly sixty percent on each of the quizzes, and D achieved around seventy five percent. These scores were what was roughly expected for each of them to achieve, this reinforced the earlier statements made by users during alpha testing that the quizzes and software-to-user comments (feedback) from the quizzes were suitable.

The tutorial on HTML was the area that was initially expected to encounter most user-orientated problems. As A, B and D progressed though each page of the HTML section it became increasingly apparent that they were using a little trial and error to attempt to adapt the HTML to there own choices, which was actually good to see. Whenever they encountered any problems with the work they would help each other out, and C was only too happy to show off his skills to the others. Overall this section encountered less problems than expected, however when finally testing the software with a full class of pupils many problems are to be expected.

On average each sample user took one hour and thirty minutes to complete using the software, this was much longer than initially thought, but they did have a lot to read, and lots to work though.

Changes That Were Made

It was decided that the software needed another injection of colour, and an interactive ‘drop-down’ navigation system so it would be easier to find certain pages of information more quickly. The sample users also agreed with the suggestion of a method to allow them to test small pieces of HTML from within the software, so this will be included before final user testing. These sample users also agreed with comments that were made during alpha testing, however, due to time restraints each screen of information will not be broken up through the use of images, even though this would be beneficial.

Results Of User Testing

The solution at this stage looked as shown below; this final user testing session took place with a class of pupils at the client’s school, observations were made and pupils were questioned on their progress and thoughts about the software.

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When the class were told that their usual lesson plan was to be replaced with something new, positive behavioural changes could be seen from their reactions, and as they were presented with the solution they remained initially entertained.

Throughout the session it was good to see children occasionally discussing the software amongst themselves and asking each other questions. However they also helped each other out during the quizzes, which, in a way, defeats the point in recording their scores for later assessment. If a teacher was recording the scores they would be required to monitor the pupil’s communication with one another while using the software.

Towards the end of the session, the pupils were slightly less motivated, but all remained actively working with the software and most were, at this stage, participating in the HTML tutorial. Some of the pupils were progressing through the tutorial much more quickly than others, and although this was expected to some extent, the range in variation was much greater than initially thought. It was good to see though that the more knowledgeable pupils were often willing to help those that were struggling, and with a little more time, patience and teaching, it is thought that most of the pupils would be able to create web pages using text editors.

Comments made about the software were mostly positive. The pupils liked the colour schemes, interface and other design features, but were slightly disappointed with the amount of interaction that took place, and the repetitiveness of the individual screens. The most significant problem that the pupils found was understanding the coloured hyperlinks; while using the software hypertext is coloured red, green and blue for access of a dictionary term, a new page within the software or an external page respectively. Most pupils did not read the help file, and therefore never really learnt how this navigational feature functioned.

The teacher benefited from using the software as it describes topic related terms in a way that is suitable for the pupils and concepts that require images often with animation for them to be visualised (such as packet-switching) are present. The teacher also appreciated how easy the software was to use, as this massively reduced the amount of time that was required to debrief the pupils on how to use the software.

In general the testing session ran smoothly, the pupils all seemed to feel that they had learnt something through using the software and although the software was a little repetitive in areas, most pupils enjoyed using it.

Conclusions

There are many adjustments that would be made to the software should it be developed further, but this is the end of the development process and no further action is to be taken. The software has succeeded in achieving its main aim of giving learners the ability to learn the chosen topic through using its medium, and it has done this in quite an interactive and entertaining way.

Self Critical Appraisal

Alessi & Trollip (2001) provide an educational software evaluation form; the following passage is a summary of the evaluation based on the use of this form and other criteria that can be used to critically appraise the artefact, it has been drafted between both the developer and the client.

Subject Matter

Firstly the solution matches its goals as defined in the method section, and has the potential to build on them should the prototype be further developed. The content helps to achieve this aim, and in itself is well structured, accurate and correct, in spelling, grammar and punctuation. Within the software is also a glossary that reinforces the use of hypertext links that give definitions of key technical words. However the software does suffer from having too much textual information present on certain individual screens, but for the sake of prototyping this is no major problem.

Auxiliary Information

The software does have various information present that fits into this area; help, directions and the introductory page all fit into this category, along with concluding sections of each topic. These areas, although often brief, serve their purpose well; there is an individual help page and directions are given as specific areas are accessed by the user.

Affective Considerations

Motivation is a key concept that the solution deals with quite well. The subject itself helps to increase motivation, as the idea of creating Web pages is something that many learners find to be interesting and potentially beneficial. Throughout the software motivational ideas are present, two good examples include the use of attractive animation on the loading screen to prevent the users from getting bored while waiting for the software to download and the use of the character that continuously refers to the users previous knowledge to help them to feel that they already know some information about the subject. The use of fantasy has also been used to increase motivation, during the HTML tutorial they are given the example that they are creating something that could be applied for real-world use, even though the skills that they learn are very basic.

Interface

The interface and other mechanical features of the solution are also suitable for their purpose, all displays are clear, the text quality is relatively high and methods for controlling media are suitable for this prototype stage. The software relies on user interaction through the use of the mouse, which is best for this kind of application, but the keyboard is used in areas where there is no alternative, such as when using the built-in text editor.

The main interface is well spaced out, and an easy to use, animated drop-down menu is used to access sub-sections of information is a secondary manner, page turning is thought to be the primary way to navigate through the sections. No problems were found with this routine during testing/feedback sessions, and therefore it can be safely said that it is suitable for its audience.

Navigation

While progressing through the software certain navigational aids are present to increase the user’s orientation of where they are, how they got there and where they can go next. They include the use of rollovers to highlight areas of functionality, page numbers to show how far they are through sections of information and well titled subheadings to reinforce the learners knowledge of what they are reading about.

The navigation is consistent throughout the software, therefore decreasing the time that users need to spend observing how to use the software; this has been easily done through the use of a development library present within Macromedia Flash MX. Landmarks have also been use to help the user to remember and identify areas of interest and concluding sections of content areas.

Pedagogy

The software’s ability to teach has been boosted by the use of many features and by the way that it has been designed. Although lots of textual information is present in many of the sections it has to be noted that many learners learn at a higher rate by reading than though the use of other mediums (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

The software’s use of interaction is mostly based around the use of quizzes, a ‘drag and drop’ activity and the use of a built-in text editor; although these areas are relatively basic they are probably the most suitable for their topics. The quizzes are well written; questions are suitable, easy to physically answer and feedback is constantly informative and of a high quality. Questions have also only been given were the content that they cover is essential to gaining a fundamental knowledge of their overall topic.

Learning is also boosted though the use of designing for a limited cognitive capacity, no more than eight main pages of information are given before the user is guided to take part in an interactive activity, this is very suitable for the target audience.

The users control also boosts the amount of learning that can take place, as the user doesn’t need to observe areas of information that they already know. When a learner learns through watching a television program, they may have to watch areas that they already have knowledge of before they get to progress with their learning objectives, this is not present in the solution as the user is given more control.

The software also relies on elements of co-operative learning even though no direct references are given, it is expected that should the software be used in the classroom, it would be related to group work and while using the HTML tutorial it was observed that users often assisted one another.

In general the software’s ability to teach relies on the users interest in the subject and maybe the users patience; it is not a fun, edutainment based piece of software, but it is a relatively complete hypermedia based program that guides the learner in their quest to learn information.

Invisible Features

The software’s log-in function and save status routine are secure and the use of  usernames and passwords help to keep it so. The user never gets to see any mechanics behind the database interaction and in general all invisible features are well executed.

Robustness

Throughout the testing/feedback sessions no errors became apparent as the software has been designed to cope with user interactions no matter how bizarre they may be. The software has also been tested on various platforms and browsers and no problems have been discovered so far.

Supplementary Materials

The software’s supplementary materials only include information that is present on the font-end of the web site and on the links page that is used to access further information. These have not been too heavily developed for this prototype stage; however it is worth noting that the content that is present is suitable and all hyperlinks are complete.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Now that the software has been developed to a fully functional prototype stage, it is now time to discuss changes that would be made should it be fully developed.

Changes That Would Be Made During Further Development

The first thing that would need to be changed would be the general ‘look and feel’ of the solution, with a little time and effort a much more professional looking piece of software would be produced. Specific changes would include fixing glitches in the drop-down menus animation, using a tasteful graphical background image and using a font that looks more crisp and similar at any size; at present the font appears to be different depending on its size, and how it is used within the software i.e. dynamic text looks different to static text. These changes, although basic, would positively increase the professionalism of the software, and therefore make it more acceptable to both teachers and learners.

During final user testing it also became apparent that most users would have liked to have seen more variation between each individual page of content, this would need to be implemented within a fully developed version. Variation could be achieved by using images, animations or short movie clips to break up the text and to vary the media that is presented, but this additional media should only be used where it is possible to aid learning or to reinforce concepts described within the text, download times should also be taken into account.

A general increase in the amount of media and different types of media would also be beneficial, the medium has the potential to include virtually all kinds of media, but the solution at this stage doesn’t make use of many of them. Although simple animations have been used to display information that cannot be easily described, more simple, yet large animations could have been used to replace quantities of text. By reducing the amount of textual information through its replacement with media the software has the possibilities of becoming much more interactive, and would reduce the user’s eyestrain, repetitive observations and limited interaction with the software.

The use of sound is also something that should be included within a fully developed version and it could be used in many ways; button rollovers, user interaction and screen changes could all benefit from sound effects to increase the amount of feedback to the user. Sound could also be used as speech to allow the software’s character to communicate with the learner through both text and sound, dual-encoding information, and if correctly implemented it could assist the users learning experience. Sound is an unessential type of media in relation to its purpose within the artefact, and therefore was not directly required for inclusion within the prototype; with the software being tested in a classroom it was also thought that sound would have more problems than benefits.

Within the solution a character is frequently used to guide the user and to present information, however it was frequently mentioned during testing/feedback stages that it would have been good to see variation in the characters movement and interaction. This could have been done in many ways, and should be present within a fully developed version; it would be good to see the character occasionally asking simple multiple choice questions and possibly presenting information through the use of movement.

The built in text editor that is present within the solution would also need improving slightly for a fully developed version, although it does everything that it needs to do, there are many additional features that would be useful if added. It would be beneficial if the user could save the text editors status as they do their quiz scores, and have a method of saving the document without the need for previewing it in a browser (a direct download function). Other features that would be beneficial include some tag creators, and a code validation routine that could check for common errors and mistakes. This would help to increase the learning potential as learners wouldn’t be required to spend time looking for small mistakes that have quite significant consequences, and although it could take quite a while to develop, the benefits easily outweigh the negatives.

Other changes and additions that are not necessarily essential but would be highly useful include building an online community to accompany the site and creating a small educational game that could be used as a reward for completing the tutorials and quizzes.

An online community would allow learners with roughly equal knowledge of the subject to help assist one another and would allow collaborative and cooperative learning to take place. The online community would need to be made ‘safe’ though for it to be accepted within schools and by parents, all input must be monitored and moderators would be required to control accessibility and to monitor input where possible. Features of an online community that would be suitable include a bullet-in board and a chat room, and although the development time and/or cost could be quite high, benefits include not only an increase in learning and user interaction, but an increase in user communication and the eventual popularity of the software.

The final addition that will be discussed is the possible inclusion of an educational game that could be used to act as a reward for the completion of the tutorial and quizzes. A simple game would increase the user’s motivation and should the educational aspect of the game reinforce concepts of a portion of the solution, it would nicely tie-in and make the users experience of using the software more memorable. However it should only be a short and simple game, and maybe have limitations attached to it that only allow the user to play the game a fixed number of times, for a specified amount of time or until complete. An idea for a relevant simple game would be a simple driving game where the user had to drive around buying computer parts to connect to the Internet; if correctly designed players would learn the names of the hardware and software, what their purposes are and what they look like. This idea can also be relatively easily built using Macromedia Flash MX.

Conclusions

Overall, the solution that has been created, without these additional changes, is still fully useable in both the classroom and as an independent learning tool. It was interesting to see how the solution changed throughout testing and evolved over time, and how it differs from the original designs.

How the production of the artefact was approached would be completely changed should a similar project be undertaken; instead of specifying set stages for feedback, it would be much better to get frequent feedback from various target audience based users and other professionals. This would allow constant changes to take place, instead of designing to a next point and then altering the work to suit advice from others.

In general the methods taken, software used and feedback acquired were suitable for a project of this size. While developing the artefact many new design concepts were learnt along with an increase in programming skills and knowledge of human psychology related to learning. It has been quite a successful project and principles that have been applied here will sure to be reused in future ventures.

REFERENCES

Alessi S. M. & Trollip S. R. (2001). Multimedia For Learning – Methods And Development (3^rd ed.) Massachusetts, USA: Allyn & Bacon.

Amazon.co.uk, Customer Reviews. (2002). Retrieved November 8, 2002, from http://www.amazon.co.uk

Bellantoni J. & Woolman M. (1999). Type In Motion – Innovations In Digital Graphics. London, UK: Thames & Hudson.

Bush V. (1945). The Atlantic Monthly - As We May Think. (Volume 176 - No. 1, pages 101-108). Retrieved October 30, 2002, from http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/computer/bushf.htm

Cotton B. & Oliver R. (1997). Understanding Hypermedia – Multimedia Origins, Internet Futures. Phaidon.

Fenn L. (1996). Eyewitness Encyclopaedia of Space and the Universe by Dorling Kindersley. Retrieved November 8, 2002 from http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~lfenn/rev/rev25.htm

Lowe D. & Hall W. (1999). Hypermedia & The Web.
John Wiley & Sons.

Macromedia (2002). Flash MX Features. Retrieved on November 9, 2002 from http://www.macromedia.com/software/flash/productinfo/product_overview/

Neilson J. (1990). Hypertext & Hypermedia.

OCR. (2001). 1453s - GCSE Information Technology, Syllabus Code 1453.

NGfL. (2000). Technical annex for NGfL content providers (2^nd ed.). Retrieved November 9, 2002 from http://challenge.ngfl.gov.uk/techannex.html

Powell T. A. (2000). Web Design – The Complete Reference. California, USA: Osborne/McGraw-Hill.

Pozar J. (1997). Eyewitness Encyclopedia of Space and the Universe. Retrieved November 8, 2002 from http://www.worldvillage.com/wv/cafe/html/reviews/eyewit.htm

TheCounter.com (2002). Global Browsing Statistics. Retrieved November 9, 2002 from http://www.thecounter.com/stats/2002/October/index.php

TheReviewZone.com (-). Encarta 98 Encyclopedia Deluxe Review. Retrieved November 8, 2002 from http://www.thereviewzone.com/encartadeluxe98.html

Superkids.com (1997). Software Review Of Encarta ’98. Retrieved November 8, 2002 from http://www.superkids.com/aweb/pages/reviews/encyclo/3/encarta/merge.shtml

Vogelzang J. (1996). Human Computer Interaction: Interface Design For Child Users. Retrieved December 6, 2002 from http://www.panoptek.com/javo/writing/HCI_2.HTM

Walker S. (2001). Typography For Children. Retrieved December 3, 2002 from http://www.textmatters.com/kidstype/index.html

Woodhead N. (1991). Hypertext & Hypermedia – Theory And Applications.

APPENDIX

Concept Document – Web Funky

What?

Web Funky is a complete introduction to web design principles and HTML; it is aimed at learner’s aged 14-16 years and is part of Key Stage 3/4 learning. In this product you can learn about the history of the Internet and what makes a good web page, finally learning some HTML skills so you can build your own pages.

You guide through the software is a new animated character called Peter Swingfellow, a retro disco dancer with attitude. He will not only guide you through the software, but will tell jokes related to what you are learning, to make the experience fun and memorable. He will also point out when you are going wrong through the activities in the software and help you to solve some of the puzzles.

Web Funky has a tastefully colourful layout, groovy navigation system, and lots of slick animation aimed at keeping your experience with the program action packed and gripping. You will love to interact with the program, and as your progress is recorded as you progress through the different areas, assessment of your knowledge and actions with the program takes place.

Web Funky is both educational and fun, you will learn web design principles and basics in HTML through the completion of various small games and quizzes designed for your age range and background knowledge of the web design and other computing skills. In one thrilling game you are given the task of building the basic structure of a web page using a drag and drop interface while being carefully over-watched by Peter Swingfellow. In another activity you are asked to construct strings of HTML based on a given specification, and in various quizzes you are asked questions based upon what you should have learnt through the use of the program to that point.

Who?

You, the user of Web Funky will probably be a school child that has to learn web design principles and some HTML in order to complete coursework that has been set by your teacher in accordance with their exam board. You will already have some understanding of the Internet and how it works, however you will probably have never even tried to create your own web page. Web Funky will teach you how!

Why?

You will think of web design as being a fun, useful and interesting skill. But when learning about the history of the Internet, web design principles and HTML from a traditional source, either from a teacher or textbook, you might be put off the subject as you find this method of learning boring. Web Funky keeps the learning process fun, original and due to its availability on the Internet, its medium is related to the subject in question.

User Requirements & Target Platform

Web Funky is created using mostly Macromedia Flash and will be available online, it is therefore available to you as long as you have an Internet connection, and have the latest version of Macromedia Flash Player installed within your browser.
Flash player tends to only require Microsoft Internet Explorer 4+ or Netscape Navigator 4+ and works on both PC and Apple Macintosh.

Node Map

View Image

Functionality Specifications

The following list is a list of some of the functions that need to be present along with any criteria that would be necessary for them to be applied successfully, the list has been created alongside the client and with other developers of educational software.

Quizzes

• Give feedback after each question, outlining where to look for more information should the user get the answer wrong and reinforcing knowledge should they get it right.

• Give feedback at the end of each quiz outlining the user’s performance in general.

• Give multiple choice answers where all available options are relevant, suitable and plausible but not significantly difficult.

• To rely on mouse input, and have large clickable areas.

Built-in Text Editor

• Allow users to preview small amounts of their HTML in a browser.

• Guide the user on how to save their code/exported pages.

• Be an integrated part of the software without the need to access a different area of the main site i.e. be built within the main Flash file.

Animation

• Be clear, simple and not too dependant on the users hardware to play smoothly.

• To be used when concepts can not be easily described at a reading level appropriate for the target audience.

• To be repeatable, and have pause, fast-forward, rewind functionality if the animation is long.

Dictionary & Glossary

• To use hypertext links throughout the software to describe technical terms at a reading level suitable for the target audience.

• To have all terms referenced in a glossary.

• To be as quick and easy to use as possible, and to not require the user to leave their present content area to view definitions.

External Links

• To target suitable external learning material.

• To ensure that only trusted sources are used.

• Minimise ‘dead’ links.

• Minimise the use of links to sites with pop-ups, poor design or other non-user-friendly annoyances.

Screenshots Of The Prototype

View Image #1 View Image #2 View Image #3 View Image #4

Artefact Content Sources

BBC (2003). BBC Bitesize – GCSE Bitesize Revision – ICT.
Retrieved February 10, 2003 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/ict/

Microsoft Press (1998) Computer Users Dictionary.

Washington, Microsoft Press.

Tyson J. (n.d). HowStuffWorks.com - How Internet Infrastructure Works.
Retrieved February 10, 2003 from http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm/printable

Kentie P. (1997). Web graphics tools and techniques.

Berkeley, CA, Peachpit Press.